Distinguishable differences which I found between countries:
1. Developed countries have much lower rates of children out of school and much higher rates of children using phones and internet. than developing countries.
2. In developed countries, almost 100% children can attend school, and there is no much difference between male and female in enrollment and attendance ratio of both primary school and secondary school.
3. In developed countries, the enrollment and attendance ratios of children in primary school are almost the same as that in secondary school.
4. In most developing countries, the rate of female who out of school is much higher than male.
5. In most developing countries, the enrollment and attendance ratios of children in secondary school are much lower that in primary school.
6. In some really poor countries, Youth (15-24 years) literacy rate and the percentage of primary school entrants reaching Grade5 are still very low.
Factors which could explain these differences:
1. Policies and resources: The policies and resources of the country will often determine whether schooling for young people is obligatory, available or accessible.
2. Poverty: When education is available, many young people cannot attend school could be for economic reasons. They are too poor to have education and even have to work as soon as possible.
3. Sociocultural barriers: For example, too early marriage.
4. Gender inequity: women in developing countries usually receive less education than men. Women and girls who are at the bottom of the social, economic and political ladder in these societies, get much lesser opportunities to have education.
2009年10月17日星期六
Poverty
1. Select two major concepts from the article by Farmer et al (2006), Explain how they are linked to poverty and health:
Here I would select Structural Violence and AIDS to say something about how they are linked to poverty and health.
First, I will present the relationship between poverty and health.
Human poverty is a complex set of deprivations in many dimensions. It has several clusters of meanings: income-poverty, material lack or want, capability deprivation and so on. And it’s disadvantages: Lack of info, Lack of Education, Institutions and Access, Poverty of Time, Seasonal Dimensions, Place of the poor, Insecurities, Physical Illbeing, Material Poverties, Social Relations, Ascribed and Legal Inferiority, Lack of Political clout. There is a complicated web between them, each one potentially having an impact on all of the others, and vice versa.
Poverty creates ill- health because it forces people to live in environments that make them sick, without decent shelter, clean water or adequate sanitation. Poverty creates hunger, which in turn leaves people vulnerable to disease. Poverty denies people access to reliable health services and affordable medicines, and causes children to miss out on routine vaccinations. Poverty creates illiteracy, leaving people poorly informed about health risks and forced into dangerous jobs that harm their health.
Poverty and health interact in many ways. Poverty can cause disease, and disease can also cause poverty. They usually go together, that’s why we should follow the issue of poverty when we do public health research.
Structural Violence, poverty, health:
What is Structural Violence? Different from what the article mentioned, the explain in Wikipedia seems more at large: a term which was first used in the 1960s and which has commonly been ascribed to Johan Galtung, denotes a form of violence which corresponds with the systematic ways in which a given social structure or social institution kills people slowly by preventing them from meeting their basic needs. Institutionalized elitism, ethnocentrism, classism, racism, sexism, adultism, nationalism, heterosexism and ageism are just some examples of structural violence. Life spans are reduced when people are socially dominated, politically oppressed, or economically exploited.
Drawing from Bronfenbrenner, we suggest that structural violence is nested within three systems, the socio-political (the macrosystem), the socio-environmental (the mesosystem) and the psychological (the microsystem). The mechanisms by which structural violence operates are found in the state and its institutions. Social institutions including the law and educational facilities sanction and enforce conditions that place people at high risk for negative consequences such as economic (unemployment), psychological (suicide, mental illness), behavioral (crime), and physical (illness).
As Gandhi saw, "the deadliest form of violence is poverty." The truth of Gandhi's generalization has been confirmed repeatedly by empirical research showing how death rates increase when poverty rates increase, in both cross-cultural and longitudinal studies. In fact, the difference in death rates suffered by poor nations, compared with wealthy ones, has been shown to be far greater than the death rates caused by all forms of violent behavior put together, including homicide, suicide and warfare. What is it that refer to the increased death rates that the poor suffer------ Structural violence.
In fact, Structural Violence is a concept of sociology and of course a wide concept, we can see from above that how it cause poverty and disease, then there is also a strong relationship between poverty and disease as I mentioned at beginning. Actually, Structural Violence is nested with poverty and health.
AIDS, poverty, health:
I think it is needless to say more about the relationship between health and AIDS, here I will concentrate on poverty and AIDS.
AIDS which has often been described as a “disease of poverty” is never an isolated problem –always part of a wider problem in a society.
Poverty to AIDS: The fact that most people living with HIV in the region today are poor simply reflects the fact that the epidemic has now spread throughout the generalized population in a region that has a high proportion of poor people. Here are some example: Household studies in Thailand, India and Sri Lanka suggest AIDS is disproportionately affecting the poor in Asia; Evidence from Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia and Vietnam shows the least educated are at greater risk; The least educated are less likely to use contraception and to be aware of dangers of AIDS; The poorest are more likely to turn to sex work, and less able to insist that their clients use condoms.
AIDS to poverty: AIDS kills people in the prime of their working and parenting lives, with a devastating effect on the lives and livelihoods of affected households. Incomes shrink when employed household members become sick or die, and resources are further depleted by medical and funeral-related costs. The impact on poor households is clearly disproportionate, with many struggling to meet demands for treatment and care. Moreover, even if drugs are free, poor families may have insufficient resources to meet basic nutrition needs or the costs of travel to health clinics for care. In addition, AIDS increases TB, which mainly affects poor.
2. Describe also what value this articles point of view brings to discussion on poverty and health:
Since structural interventions might arguably have a greater impact on disease control than do conventional clinical interventions, we would do well to pay heed to them. And distal and proximal interventions are complementary, not competing. The poor are the natural constituents of public health, and physicians, as Virchow argued, are the natural attorneys of the poor. In this struggle, equity in healthcare is our responsibility. Only when we link our efforts to those of others committed to initiating virtuous social cycles can we expect a future in which medicine attains its noblest goals.
References:
1.Susan James, PhD,Structural violence: the invisible violence in our communities
2.Water shortage as a form of structural violence written by James Gilligan, MD , School of Arts and Science, New York University, New York, NY
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_violence
4. http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0040314
5. http://www.line.dk/reading/blankertz6.html
6. Farmer, P., Nizeye, B., Stulac, S. & Keshavjee, S. 2006. Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. (pdf) PLoS Medicine, Vol. 3(10)
7. Dying for change. Poor people's experience of health and ill-health. (pdf) WHO & The World Bank. Complete report
Here I would select Structural Violence and AIDS to say something about how they are linked to poverty and health.
First, I will present the relationship between poverty and health.
Human poverty is a complex set of deprivations in many dimensions. It has several clusters of meanings: income-poverty, material lack or want, capability deprivation and so on. And it’s disadvantages: Lack of info, Lack of Education, Institutions and Access, Poverty of Time, Seasonal Dimensions, Place of the poor, Insecurities, Physical Illbeing, Material Poverties, Social Relations, Ascribed and Legal Inferiority, Lack of Political clout. There is a complicated web between them, each one potentially having an impact on all of the others, and vice versa.
Poverty creates ill- health because it forces people to live in environments that make them sick, without decent shelter, clean water or adequate sanitation. Poverty creates hunger, which in turn leaves people vulnerable to disease. Poverty denies people access to reliable health services and affordable medicines, and causes children to miss out on routine vaccinations. Poverty creates illiteracy, leaving people poorly informed about health risks and forced into dangerous jobs that harm their health.
Poverty and health interact in many ways. Poverty can cause disease, and disease can also cause poverty. They usually go together, that’s why we should follow the issue of poverty when we do public health research.
Structural Violence, poverty, health:
What is Structural Violence? Different from what the article mentioned, the explain in Wikipedia seems more at large: a term which was first used in the 1960s and which has commonly been ascribed to Johan Galtung, denotes a form of violence which corresponds with the systematic ways in which a given social structure or social institution kills people slowly by preventing them from meeting their basic needs. Institutionalized elitism, ethnocentrism, classism, racism, sexism, adultism, nationalism, heterosexism and ageism are just some examples of structural violence. Life spans are reduced when people are socially dominated, politically oppressed, or economically exploited.
Drawing from Bronfenbrenner, we suggest that structural violence is nested within three systems, the socio-political (the macrosystem), the socio-environmental (the mesosystem) and the psychological (the microsystem). The mechanisms by which structural violence operates are found in the state and its institutions. Social institutions including the law and educational facilities sanction and enforce conditions that place people at high risk for negative consequences such as economic (unemployment), psychological (suicide, mental illness), behavioral (crime), and physical (illness).
As Gandhi saw, "the deadliest form of violence is poverty." The truth of Gandhi's generalization has been confirmed repeatedly by empirical research showing how death rates increase when poverty rates increase, in both cross-cultural and longitudinal studies. In fact, the difference in death rates suffered by poor nations, compared with wealthy ones, has been shown to be far greater than the death rates caused by all forms of violent behavior put together, including homicide, suicide and warfare. What is it that refer to the increased death rates that the poor suffer------ Structural violence.
In fact, Structural Violence is a concept of sociology and of course a wide concept, we can see from above that how it cause poverty and disease, then there is also a strong relationship between poverty and disease as I mentioned at beginning. Actually, Structural Violence is nested with poverty and health.
AIDS, poverty, health:
I think it is needless to say more about the relationship between health and AIDS, here I will concentrate on poverty and AIDS.
AIDS which has often been described as a “disease of poverty” is never an isolated problem –always part of a wider problem in a society.
Poverty to AIDS: The fact that most people living with HIV in the region today are poor simply reflects the fact that the epidemic has now spread throughout the generalized population in a region that has a high proportion of poor people. Here are some example: Household studies in Thailand, India and Sri Lanka suggest AIDS is disproportionately affecting the poor in Asia; Evidence from Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia and Vietnam shows the least educated are at greater risk; The least educated are less likely to use contraception and to be aware of dangers of AIDS; The poorest are more likely to turn to sex work, and less able to insist that their clients use condoms.
AIDS to poverty: AIDS kills people in the prime of their working and parenting lives, with a devastating effect on the lives and livelihoods of affected households. Incomes shrink when employed household members become sick or die, and resources are further depleted by medical and funeral-related costs. The impact on poor households is clearly disproportionate, with many struggling to meet demands for treatment and care. Moreover, even if drugs are free, poor families may have insufficient resources to meet basic nutrition needs or the costs of travel to health clinics for care. In addition, AIDS increases TB, which mainly affects poor.
2. Describe also what value this articles point of view brings to discussion on poverty and health:
Since structural interventions might arguably have a greater impact on disease control than do conventional clinical interventions, we would do well to pay heed to them. And distal and proximal interventions are complementary, not competing. The poor are the natural constituents of public health, and physicians, as Virchow argued, are the natural attorneys of the poor. In this struggle, equity in healthcare is our responsibility. Only when we link our efforts to those of others committed to initiating virtuous social cycles can we expect a future in which medicine attains its noblest goals.
References:
1.Susan James, PhD,Structural violence: the invisible violence in our communities
2.Water shortage as a form of structural violence written by James Gilligan, MD , School of Arts and Science, New York University, New York, NY
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_violence
4. http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0040314
5. http://www.line.dk/reading/blankertz6.html
6. Farmer, P., Nizeye, B., Stulac, S. & Keshavjee, S. 2006. Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. (pdf) PLoS Medicine, Vol. 3(10)
7. Dying for change. Poor people's experience of health and ill-health. (pdf) WHO & The World Bank. Complete report
2009年10月7日星期三
why it is important to consider health at the global level
What is public health in global level?
First, I will mention the definition of Public Health: the science of protecting and improving the health of communities through education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention.
Second, the goals: aim at population-wide health improvement, implying a concern to reduce health inequalities. The United States Association of School of Public Health stipulate that populations can be as small as a local neighbourhood or as big as the entire world.(Association of School of Public Heaalth,2007)
So, public health focus on the health of communities, what is the biggest community? Of course the entire world---globle.
Then its focus is the impact of global interdependence on the determinants of health, the transfer of health risks and the policy response of countries, international organizationsand the many other actors in the global health arena. Its goal is the equitable access to health in all regions of the globe.
Why it is important?
Globalization has linked our health more closely to one another than ever before. The rapid movement of people and food across borders means that a disease can travel from a remote village to an urban hub at breakneck speed. Global public health meets the rising health challenges that transcend national boundaries. The international field encompasses virtually all specializations in public health.
Global Health contributes to the understanding of the extent to which the transfer of health risks changes in nature, direction and impact due to the increased speed, reduced distance and cultural transfer brought about by modern means of transport and communication as well as new forms of economic dependence and interdependence. Not only can infectious disease travel more rapidly thanever before, but so can harmful life styles, pollution, toxic substances and unsafe goods and products. That's the first point.
Second, Global Health contributes to the development of strategies that counteract epidemiological polarization and aim to achieve a balance between supportive global mechanisms and decentralized approaches. As a priority this includes building the capacity of the developing world to govern health in the new global context as well as strengthening the local response to the new social, behavioral,environmental or biological risks to health such as the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, urban violence or bio-terrorist threats.
There are many grand Challenges in Global Health, for example:
To improve childhood vaccines
To create new vaccines
To control insects that transmit agents of disease
To improve nutrition to promote health
To improve drug treatment of infectious diseases
To cure latent and chronic infections
To measure disease and health status accurately and economically in poor countries
In conclusion, Global health research is necessary to remove the various social, cultural, and logistical barriers that confound the well-intentioned efforts of many global health programs. Therefore, research must focus on concerns raised by developing countries, closing not only the gap in health disparities within countries, but also the gap in knowledge between the developed and developing world. Furthermore, research must be sensitive to the culture of a particular community. As the field of global health research continues to grow, our student should pay more attention to globle health.
First, I will mention the definition of Public Health: the science of protecting and improving the health of communities through education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention.
Second, the goals: aim at population-wide health improvement, implying a concern to reduce health inequalities. The United States Association of School of Public Health stipulate that populations can be as small as a local neighbourhood or as big as the entire world.(Association of School of Public Heaalth,2007)
So, public health focus on the health of communities, what is the biggest community? Of course the entire world---globle.
Then its focus is the impact of global interdependence on the determinants of health, the transfer of health risks and the policy response of countries, international organizationsand the many other actors in the global health arena. Its goal is the equitable access to health in all regions of the globe.
Why it is important?
Globalization has linked our health more closely to one another than ever before. The rapid movement of people and food across borders means that a disease can travel from a remote village to an urban hub at breakneck speed. Global public health meets the rising health challenges that transcend national boundaries. The international field encompasses virtually all specializations in public health.
Global Health contributes to the understanding of the extent to which the transfer of health risks changes in nature, direction and impact due to the increased speed, reduced distance and cultural transfer brought about by modern means of transport and communication as well as new forms of economic dependence and interdependence. Not only can infectious disease travel more rapidly thanever before, but so can harmful life styles, pollution, toxic substances and unsafe goods and products. That's the first point.
Second, Global Health contributes to the development of strategies that counteract epidemiological polarization and aim to achieve a balance between supportive global mechanisms and decentralized approaches. As a priority this includes building the capacity of the developing world to govern health in the new global context as well as strengthening the local response to the new social, behavioral,environmental or biological risks to health such as the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, urban violence or bio-terrorist threats.
There are many grand Challenges in Global Health, for example:
To improve childhood vaccines
To create new vaccines
To control insects that transmit agents of disease
To improve nutrition to promote health
To improve drug treatment of infectious diseases
To cure latent and chronic infections
To measure disease and health status accurately and economically in poor countries
In conclusion, Global health research is necessary to remove the various social, cultural, and logistical barriers that confound the well-intentioned efforts of many global health programs. Therefore, research must focus on concerns raised by developing countries, closing not only the gap in health disparities within countries, but also the gap in knowledge between the developed and developing world. Furthermore, research must be sensitive to the culture of a particular community. As the field of global health research continues to grow, our student should pay more attention to globle health.
订阅：
博文 (Atom)
